Observation Method

The observation method is the most commonly used in order to study behaviour. In this method the information is sought by way of investigators on direct observation without asking from the respondents. The observer should not change any of the variables nor he should create anything artificially. 

Structured and Unstructured Observation:

While using observation method, the observer must be aware of what to observe? How to observe? And how accurate will be the observation. If the observer is following all these rules, his observation is termed as Structured Observation. If the observation is carried out without these characteristics then it is called an Unstructured Observation.

Participant and Non Participant Type of Observation:

Observation can be done playing a role of participant, where he actively participates in the group discussion apart from observing the concerned person; this is called as Participant Type Observation. Whereas the work of the observer of done passively, that is without participating along the group is called as Non Participant Type of Observation.

Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation:

If the observation takes place in a natural setting, then it is called Uncontrolled Observation. Whereas it takes  place according to definite pre arranged plans involving experimental procedure, then it is termed as Controlled Observation. The main drawback of the Uncontrolled Observation is about subjective interpretation, where as Controlled Observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon with generalization could be made with assurance.

Merits of Observation Method:

• Subjective bias is eliminated if the observation is done accurately. 

• Observer gets the information of currently happening.

• The observer is able to record the natural behaviour of the concerned individual or group.

• The observer can gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. 

• The observer can verify the truth of the statements made by information in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

• Independent of respondent's willingness to respond and less demanding of active co-operation on the past of respondents.

• This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving variable reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.  

Demerits of Observation Method:

• It is a very expensive method in terms of time as well as money.

• Information provided by this method is very limited.

• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task.

• Observer may loose the objectivity to the extent he involves himself emotionally. 

Questionnaire Method

A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. This method is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by research workers, private an public organisations and even by governments. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions, reply to the questions and send it back. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. 

Merits of the Questionnaire Method:

• It is less expensive and widely spread geographically. 

• It is free from the bias of the interviewer because answers are in respondents' own words. 

• Respondents are given sufficient time to answer.

• Easily approachable to the respondents.

• Large samples may made use of and thus may be made more dependable and reliable.

Demerits of the Questionnaire Method:

• Low rate return to the scripts.

• It can only be used with educated people.

• Control over the questionnaire will be lost.

• There is possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies.

• This method is likely to be slower than other methods.

Essential Features of a Good Questionnaire: 

• It should comparatively short and simple.

• Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from easy to difficult questions. 

• Personal and intimate questions should be left at the end.

• Technical terms, vague expressions,capable of different interpretation should be avoided. 

• Questions may be in pattern of 'yes' or 'no', multiple choices or open ended. 

• Questions affecting the sentiments of others must be avoided. 

• Directions of answering should be given. 

• Finally the physical appearance of the questions should be good.

Experimental Method

In experimental method of studying behaviour is carried out in laboratories. Sometimes these experiments are contucted in fields, which are named as field experiments. The main objective of this method is to formulate a testable hypothesis in terms of observable events.

The four basic steps of the process are: 

1. Forming a Hypothesis
2. Designing a Study and Collecting Data
3. Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions
4. Sharing the Findings

In this method of experiments, there are two important concepts with which we deal. They are;

1. Variables
2. Controls

Variables:

It is an event or condition which can have different values. It is an event which can be measured and it varies quantitatively. 

Variables may be either;

  a) Independent

  b) Dependent

An independent variable is a condition set or selected by an experiment to see whether it will have an effect on behaviour. It might be a stimulus presented, a drug administration, a new method of training etc.

The dependent variable in an experiment might be the response of a person or animal to the stimulus. It is the behaviour of the person or animal after the administration of the drug, training method etc. It is called as a dependent variable, because their value depend upon the independent variable. 

Example: Enriching the environment of young children with books and toys will increase their scores on intelligence tests.  

Here, enriching the environment is the independent where as scores of intelligence tests are dependent. 

Controls:

The other important character of the experimental method is control. In an experiment, the factors other than the independent variable which might affect the dependent variable must be held constant or the result of the experiment will be unreliable. Scientists must be very careful to control their experiments adequately.

Advantages of Experimental Method:

• Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established.

• It allows for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable the experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected in order to observe its effect on some other variables. 

• Experiments can be replicated. We cannot generalise from the results of a single experiment. The more often an experiment is repeated, with the same results obtained, the more confident we can be that the theory being tested is valid. The experimental method consists of standardised procedures and measures which allow it to be easily repeated.

• It is also worth noting that an experiment yields quantitative data (numerical amounts of something) which can be analysed using inferential statistical tests. These tests permit statements to be made about how likely the results are to have occurred through chance.

Limitations of the Experimental Method:

• It cannot always be used, especially if it is dangerous to the subject.

• This method is restricted in its application.

• The conclusion derived from this method may not be applied in natural situation. 

• This method sometimes interferes with the very thing it is trying to measure.

Branches of Psychology

There are a number of unique and distinctive branches of psychology. Each branch looks at questions and problems from a different perspective. While each branch has its own focus on psychological problems or concerns, all areas share a common goal of studying and explaining human thought and behaviour.  

The branches of Psychology have been divided mainly into two types; 

1. Pure or basic branch
2. Applied branch

Introduction and Definitions of Psychology

Main Contributors to Psychology

The word Psychology was derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means soul and Logos means discourse or science. 

1. Psychology is the Study of Soul:

About 2000 years ago the literal meaning of the term Psychology was given as soul. As the concept of soul was purely abstract and metaphysical in nature, this definition was vague hence it was discarded. 

2. Psychology is the Study of Mind:

Later on the term soul was replaced as mind by Plato and it was defined as “Psychology is the study of mind”. This definition was continued or appreciated up to the last century but it was discarded later, on the basis that the term mind was also equally vague and metaphysical in nature.

3. Psychology is the Science of Study of Conscious Experience:

After the rejection of above two definitions, William Wundth the founder of the Psychology Laboratory in 1879, has defined Psychology as “The science of study of conscious experience”. This definition was more tangible than above two, but it does not fully express all that is implied in the term psychology. Eg. Psychology does not confine its study to only conscious mental process but it also studies unconscious process such as dreams, hallucinations, delusions, phobias and other mental aberrations.

4. Psychology is the Study of Objective Behavior by Subjective Experience:

Another psychologist who belongs to School of Introspections has defined Psychology as “The study of objective behavior by subjective experience”. According to this definition, the individual who is confronted with a particular situation will have a better experience of it and hence he can understand and predict the experience of another person who is subjected to similar or the same situation. Eg. If a person has experienced the danger of electric shock, he can understand and predict the experience of another person. Though this definition appears to be reasonable, it is limited in its application, because the experience of different individuals who are exposed to the same situation might not be the same. It may differ either in the degree or kind or in both. Hence this definition was also rejected.

5. Psychology Should Improve the Knowledge of Human Nature:

According to Mc. Doughall the founder of Hormic School, the subject matter of Psychology should be such that “It should render or improve our knowledge of human nature more exactly and systematically. So that we may control ourselves more wisely and influence our men more effectively”. Even this definition had its own limitations as it refers to only human beings and not animals.

6. Psychology is the Science of Behavior:

Another psychologist has defined Psychology as “The science of behavior”. Though the term behavior is used by layman in a somewhat narrower sense, in Psychology it includes not only motor behavior such as walking, running, eating, talking etc. But it also includes the cognitive activities like perceiving, remembering, learning etc. in addition, it also includes motives which determine direct and overt behavior. In other words this definition covers both the external activities and the internal experiences, along with psychological activities such as thinking, reasoning, etc. Though this definition fairly acceptable, in reality it is not a complete one as it does not cover animal behavior.

7. Psychology is the Science of Activities of an Individual:

After a long gap from the above definition Woodworth and Marquis have defined Psychology as “The science of activities of an individual”. In the context the term activities has a broad sense. It includes motor activities like walking, speaking etc. Cognitive activities like perceiving, remembering, thinking, etc. And emotional activities like laughing, crying, sadness, jealousy etc. These activities may appear to be passive yet they are activities for they depend upon the life of the organism. Though this definition seems to be more comprehensive it is narrow because it does not include the behavior of animals.

8. Psychology is the Science of Experience and Behavior:

Munn has defined Psychology as “The science of experience and behavior”. Experience is internal, hence it can be understood only by the individual who lives through that, where as behavior is overt and objective and hence it is observable and verifiable by others.

All these definitions have contributed to the subject matter of Psychology in their own way. Noting down all the advantages and limitations Psychology can be defined as the science of study of the cognitive and affective behaviors of men and animals which are conscious or unconscious.