The Rocking Horse Winner: Preface

In "The Rocking-Horse Winner," a young boy, Paul, perceives that there is never enough money in his family, he sets out to find a way to get money through luck. He discovers that if he rides his rocking-horse fast enough, he will somehow "know" the name of the winning horse in the next race.

He begins to make money and secretly funnel this money to his mother, but the desire for more money only grows more intense instead of going away. He finally rides his rocking-horse so furiously in order to discover the winner of the Derby that he falls into illness and dies, just as the winning horse earns his family an enormous fortune.

The Characters that take place in the story:

• Paul: Boy who knows that his mother does not love him or his sisters even though she outwardly shows affection and treats her children kindly. After Paul receives a rocking horse one Christmas, he rides it often and develops a strange intuitive power that enables him to correctly predict the winners of horses races. At racetracks, he wins thousands of pounds that he sets aside to defray his mother's debts.

The Rocking Horse Winner: Summary

The main theme in the story The Rocking Horse Winner is greed. The mother and father both had very expensive tastes and their children basically resented them for it. There was never enough money and both parents had small incomes. The children were starting to grow up and would have to begin school soon. But all of the family’s money was being wasted on things that were not important. The family believed that their house had become haunted with the unspoken phrase, “There must be more money!” Everyone heard it, but never said or did anything about it. The parents continued to buy unnecessary things. At Christmas time, they heard the phrase when all of the children’s expensive toys filled the house. It was believed it was the toys that haunted the house, since the mother’s greed it what caused her to buy the toys in the first place.

A motif of the Rocking Horse Winner could be luck. The mother led her son to believe that they are an unlucky family. She believes this because they have no fortune and are basically poor. She believes that if you have money, you are lucky. She told her son the cause of their unluckiness is because of his father. Since he has a small income, he was unlucky, and since she married him, it made her unlucky as well. She also told Paul that it is better to be born lucky rather than rich because if you a rich you could lose all of your money, but if you are lucky you will continue to receive money.

Misery or The Lament: Preface

Anton Chekhov's short story of a father and his great despair for his dead son has many translations. The most commonly used translation is "Misery." In one word the title accurately summarizes the mood the story carries, and leaves it's reader to contemplate the harshness of human nature. 

Written in 1886, "Misery" portrays the overwhelming grief of Iona Potapov, a Russian sleigh-driver, and his futile attempts to share with strangers the despair in the loss of his son. The story takes place almost a week after his son's death. Disturbing and inconclusive, "Misery" is not unlike a documentation of human suffering, specifically in the loss of one's child. Chekhov achieves a detailed portrayal of one man's grief, his attempts to ease his heartache, and his final comfort in sharing his story with his horse.

The Characters that take place in the story:

Iona Potapov is the main character in this story. Other characters are a military officer, three young men, a house-porter, a young cab-man and Iona's horse.

Misery or The Lament: Narration

Misery or The Lament: Analysis

“Misery” is a wonderful tale about a man named Iona who is in mourning over his dead son. Throughout the story, this sledge driver tries over and over again to talk to someone about his son’s death. Iona’s son tragically died a week ago and still has not told a soul. Finally, at the end Iona finds comfort when he talks to his horse, which is the only one wanting to listen. “Misery” reflects the harshness of human behavior and the lack of connection and compassion towards others.

The story takes place in Russia. Readers are aware of the setting when an officer yells at Iona saying, “"Sledge to Vyborgskaya!" (para. 3). Vyborgskaya is a village in Russia. The title “Misery” instantly sets the tone of the short story. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary describes the term “misery” as: “A state of suffering and want that is the result of poverty or affliction; A circumstance, thing, or place that causes suffering or discomfort; A state of great unhappiness and emotional distress. Misery can bring emotion and/or physical distress to a person. Iona, the main character in “Misery” for instance, can be distinguished as the most miserable man right now. The story claims that Iona is “white like a ghost [and] sits on the box without stirring, bent as double as the living body can be bent” (para. 1). The text also describes how he has “snow-plastered eyelashes” and he is unwilling to brush off snow from himself. Iona’s lack of caring for himself following his son’s death is an expression of being in the state of misery and how he seems dead to the world.

Misery or The Lament: Summary

The story tells about a father and his great despair for his dead son. Iona, the father, is a Russian sleigh driver who desperately tried to share his grief with strangers. Iona wanted someone to listen to him, to somehow feel his grief, in order for him to feel better. This reading shows the harshness of human nature. It takes a powerful look at the lack of human involvement and compassion toward one man's grief. Iona tries unsuccessfully, three times, to find an outlet to his pain. Only resorting to the faithful ear of his horse does Iona reach resignation from the death of his son.

Iona's first fare was a military officer. At first, this man seemed interested in Iona's story, but when Iona turned around to talk to him in more detail, the officer started shouting at him about his driving. This resulted in the military officer tuning Iona out.

Iona's next fare was three obnoxious young men. They were unruly and offensive towards Iona but he gave them a ride anyway hoping they would just listen to him. Unfortunately, one of the men replied, "we shall all die," and Iona received no sympathy from them.

Anton Chekhov

Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904) was a Russian physician, dramatist and author who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short stories in history. His career as a dramatist produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. Chekhov practised as a doctor throughout most of his literary career: "Medicine is my lawful wife", he once said, "and literature is my mistress."

The Doll's House

By Katherine Mansfield

When dear old Mrs. Hay went back to town after staying with the Burnells she sent the children a doll's house. It was so big that the carter and Pat carried it into the courtyard, and there it stayed, propped up on two wooden boxes beside the feed-room door. No harm could come of it; it was summer. And perhaps the smell of paint would have gone off by the time it had to be taken in. For, really, the smell of paint coming from that doll's house ("Sweet of old Mrs. Hay, of course; most sweet and generous!") -- but the smell of paint was quite enough to make any one seriously ill, in Aunt Beryl's opinion. Even before the sacking was taken off. And when it was . . .

There stood the doll's house, a dark, oily, spinach green, picked out with bright yellow. Its two solid little chimneys, glued on to the roof, were painted red and white, and the door, gleaming with yellow varnish, was like a little slab of toffee. Four windows, real windows, were divided into panes by a broad streak of green. There was actually a tiny porch, too, painted yellow, with big lumps of congealed paint hanging along the edge.

The Two Little Soldiers

By Guy de Maupassant

Every Sunday, the moment they were dismissed, the two little soldiers made off. Once outside the barracks, they struck out to the right through Courbevoie, walking with long rapid strides, as though they were on a march.

When they were beyond the last of the houses, they slackened pace along the bare, dusty roadway which goes toward Bezons.

The Rocking Horse Winner

By D.H. Lawrence

There was a woman who was beautiful, who started with all the advantages, yet she had no luck. She married for love, and the love turned to dust. She had bonny children, yet she felt they had been thrust upon her, and she could not love them. They looked at her coldly, as if they were finding fault with her. And hurriedly she felt she must cover up some fault in herself. Yet what it was that she must cover up she never knew. Nevertheless, when her children were present, she always felt the centre of her heart go hard. This troubled her, and in her manner she was all the more gentle and anxious for her children, as if she loved them very much. Only she herself knew that at the centre of her heart was a hard little place that could not feel love, no, not for anybody. Everybody else said of her: "She is such a good mother. She adores her children." Only she herself, and her children themselves, knew it was not so. They read it in each other's eyes.

There were a boy and two little girls. They lived in a pleasant house, with a garden, and they had discreet servants, and felt themselves superior to anyone in the neighbourhood.

Although they lived in style, they felt always an anxiety in the house. There was never enough money. The mother had a small income, and the father had a small income, but not nearly enough for the social position which they had to keep up. The father went into town to some office. But though he had good prospects, these prospects never materialised. There was always the grinding sense of the shortage of money, though the style was always kept up.

Misery or The Lament

"To whom shall I tell my grief?"

By Anton Chekhov

PART: 01 - Iona and the Military Officer

The twilight of evening. Big flakes of wet snow are whirling lazily about the street lamps, which have just been lighted, and lying in a thin soft layer on roofs, horses' backs, shoulders, caps. Iona Potapov, the sledge-driver, is all white like a ghost. He sits on the box without stirring, bent as double as the living body can be bent. If a regular snowdrift fell on him it seems as though even then he would not think it necessary to shake it off.... His little mare is white and motionless too. Her stillness, the angularity of her lines, and the stick-like straightness of her legs make her look like a halfpenny gingerbread horse. She is probably lost in thought. Anyone who has been torn away from the plough, from the familiar gray landscapes, and cast into this slough, full of monstrous lights, of unceasing uproar and hurrying people, is bound to think.

It is a long time since Iona and his nag have budged. They came out of the yard before dinnertime and not a single fare yet. But now the shades of evening are falling on the town. The pale light of the street lamps changes to a vivid color, and the bustle of the street grows noisier.

"Sledge to Vyborgskaya!" Iona hears. "Sledge!"

Iona starts, and through his snow-plastered eyelashes sees an officer in a military overcoat with a hood over his head.

"To Vyborgskaya," repeats the officer. "Are you asleep? To Vyborgskaya!"

In token of assent Iona gives a tug at the reins which sends cakes of snow flying from the horse's back and shoulders. The officer gets into the sledge. The sledge-driver clicks to the horse, cranes his neck like a swan, rises in his seat, and more from habit than necessity brandishes his whip. The mare cranes her neck, too, crooks her stick-like legs, and hesitatingly sets off....

The Blue Print of the Semester-End Exam Paper

Poem	Questions	Total Marks
Annotation	4 x 4 marks	16 marks
Prose	3 x 8 marks	24 marks
Poetry	3 x 8 marks	24 marks
Expansion of an Idea	1 x 4 marks	04 marks
Paragraph Writing OR Unseen Passage Analysis	1 x 4 marks	04 marks
Formal Letter	1 x 4 marks	04 marks
Informal Letter	1 x 4 marks	04 marks
Total	14 Question	80 marks

The Model Millionaire: Summary

There was a very good-looking young man, named Hughie Erskine. He was popular and kind. However, he was not very clever and had no money. He kept changing his job but always failed. Finally he stopped working and lived on money given to him by an old aunt. He loved a girl named Laura Merton, the daughter of a retired Colonel. The Colonel would only allow them to get married if Hughie had ten thousand pounds of his own. 

One day, Hughie visited his friend, Alan Trevor, who was a painter. When Hughie came, Alan was painting a model. The model was a beggar-man. Hughie felt sorry for the model, so he gave him a sovereign. Later that night, Hughie met Alan at Palette Club. They had a talk. Hughie found out from Alan that the model was actually not a beggar-man, but a millionaire, named Baron Hausberg. Hughie went home unhappily, whereas Alan laughed loudly. 

The next morning, a messenger from Baron Hausberg came and brought him a letter. The letter contained a cheque for ten thousand pounds which was a wedding present to Hugh Erskine and Laura Merton from Baron Hausberg. On the day of the marriage, Alan Trevor was the best man and the Baron made a speech at the wedding breakfast. Alan said, "Millionaire models are rare enough, but model millionaires are rarer still!" 

The Model Millionaire: Narration

The Model Millionaire: Analysis

Firstly, this short story emphasises the materialistic aspects of life. The protagonist of this story Hughie is a misfit in a mercantile world. He is at a loss in the world of bulls and bears. In spite of his charming appearance, he has failed in every attempts to make money. He cannot understand the ways of the world and ends up miserably whenever he tries to be successful materially. His affair with Laura is at a stake as he has failed to raise a fund of ten thousand pounds as demanded by Laura's father who welcomes Hughie as a person but is not ready to accept him as his son-in-law. Hence the second sentence of the story becomes significant:"Romance is the privilege of the rich, not the profession of the unemployed." In the end, had Baron not provided Hughie the money, the latter's marriage with Laura would not have materialised. So, making both ends meet becomes more important than the melody of love. When the stomach burns with hunger, the whole world becomes prosaic and the beautiful full moon looks like a hot flour cake. Every lover and beloved should keep it in mind.

Secondly, one must have the kindness of heart as well. Kindness shown to others pays in the end. There is no doubt that had Hughie not offered the sovereign to Baron, the latter would not have shown his generosity to sponsor the money Hughie required. Tender qualities are not to be totally dispensed with even in a thoroughly materialistic world.

Oscar Wilde

Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900) was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. Today he is remembered for hisepigrams and plays, and the circumstances of his imprisonment which was followed by his early death.

Wilde's parents were successful Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life. At university Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles. 

As a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his hand at various literary activities: he published a book of poems, lectured in the United States and Canada on the new "English Renaissance in Art", and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist. Known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress, and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day.

The Model Millionaire: Preface

By Oscar Wilde

The story took place in England in about 1900, in a real world. You can feel a sort of an atmosphere in the story. The main character, Hughie Erskine, lived in a poor place and his friend, Alan Trevor, lived in a middleclass-place. Not in a rich place but neither in a poor place. Hughie Erskine had a girlfriend, Laura Merton, who lived with her father in a “rich” place. You can feel the difference between the 3 persons and their 3 places. 

The Characters that take place in the Story: 

• Hughie Erskine: Hughie is the main character in the story. Hughie didn’t have a job, but he was a lovely man with charm and a big heart. Example: Hughie gives the beggar (Hausberg) a sovereign because he thought that Hausberg was poor. 

• Alan Trevor: Alan was Hughie’s best friend. Alan was one of the few painters at that time. 

The Model Millionaire: Prose

A Note of Admiration
By Oscar Wilde 

PART: 01

Unless one is wealthy there is no use in being a charming fellow. Romance is the privilege of the rich, not the profession of the unemployed. The poor should be practical and prosaic. It is better to have a permanent income than to be fascinating. These are the great truths of modern life which Hughie Erskine never realised. Poor Hughie! Intellectually, we must admit, he was not of much importance. He never said a brilliant or even an ill-natured thing in his life. But then he was wonderfully good-looking, with his crisp brown hair, his clear-cut profile, and his grey eyes. He was as popular with men as he was with women, and he had every accomplishment except that of making money. His father had bequeathed him his cavalry sword, and a History of the Peninsular War in fifteen volumes. Hughie hung the first over his looking-glass, put the second on a shelf between Ruff's Guide and Bailey'sMagazine, and lived on two hundred a year that an old aunt allowed him. He had tried everything. He had gone on the Stock Exchange for six months; but what was a butterfly to do among bulls and bears? He had been a tea-merchant for a little longer, but had soon tired of pekoe and souchong. Then he had tried selling dry sherry. That did not answer; the sherry was a little too dry. Ultimately he became nothing, a delightful, ineffectual young man with a perfect profile and no profession.

To make matters worse, he was in love. The girl he loved was Laura Merton, the daughter of a retired Colonel who had lost his temper and his digestion in India, and had never found either of them again. Laura adored him, and he was ready to kiss her shoe-strings. They were the handsomest couple in London, and had not a penny-piece between them. The Colonel was very fond of Hughie, but would not hear of any engagement.

Alternate English Second Semester Syllabus

Prose

1. The Model Millionaire by Oscar Wilde

• Oscar Wilde
• The Preface
• The Prose
• The Analysis
• The Summary
• Narration

2. Misery or The Lament by Anton Chekhov

• Anton Chekov
• The Preface
• The Prose
• The Analysis
• The Summary
• Narration

3. The Rocking Horse Winner by D.H. Lawrence

• D.H. Lawrence
• The Preface
• The Prose
• The Analysis
• The Summary
• Narration 01
• Narration 02

4. The Two Little Soldiers by G.D. Maupassant

• G.D. Maupassant 
• The Preface 
• The Prose
• The Analysis 
• The Summary 

5. The Doll's House by Katherine Mansfield

• Katherine Mansfield
• The Preface 
• The Prose
• The Analysis
• The Summary 01
• The Summary 02

Poetry

1. Casualty by Seamus Heaney

• Seamus Heaney
• The Poem
• The Summary

2. The Mother by Gwendolyn Brooks

• Gwendolyn Brooks
• The Poem
• The Summary
• The Summary and Critical Analysis

3. Chicago by Carl Sandburg

• Carl Sandburg
• The Poem
• The Summary 01
• The Summary 02
• The Analysis 01
• The Analysis 02

4. America by Maya Angelou

• Maya Angelou
• The Poem
• The Summary 

5. Vultures by Chinua Achebe

• Chinua Achebe
• The Poem
• The Summary
• The Analysis

The Blue Print of the Semester - End Exam Paper

Observation Method

The observation method is the most commonly used in order to study behaviour. In this method the information is sought by way of investigators on direct observation without asking from the respondents. The observer should not change any of the variables nor he should create anything artificially. 

Structured and Unstructured Observation:

While using observation method, the observer must be aware of what to observe? How to observe? And how accurate will be the observation. If the observer is following all these rules, his observation is termed as Structured Observation. If the observation is carried out without these characteristics then it is called an Unstructured Observation.

Participant and Non Participant Type of Observation:

Observation can be done playing a role of participant, where he actively participates in the group discussion apart from observing the concerned person; this is called as Participant Type Observation. Whereas the work of the observer of done passively, that is without participating along the group is called as Non Participant Type of Observation.

Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation:

If the observation takes place in a natural setting, then it is called Uncontrolled Observation. Whereas it takes  place according to definite pre arranged plans involving experimental procedure, then it is termed as Controlled Observation. The main drawback of the Uncontrolled Observation is about subjective interpretation, where as Controlled Observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon with generalization could be made with assurance.

Merits of Observation Method:

• Subjective bias is eliminated if the observation is done accurately. 

• Observer gets the information of currently happening.

• The observer is able to record the natural behaviour of the concerned individual or group.

• The observer can gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. 

• The observer can verify the truth of the statements made by information in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.

• Independent of respondent's willingness to respond and less demanding of active co-operation on the past of respondents.

• This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects who are not capable of giving variable reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.  

Demerits of Observation Method:

• It is a very expensive method in terms of time as well as money.

• Information provided by this method is very limited.

• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task.

• Observer may loose the objectivity to the extent he involves himself emotionally. 

Questionnaire Method

A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. This method is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being adopted by research workers, private an public organisations and even by governments. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions, reply to the questions and send it back. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. 

Merits of the Questionnaire Method:

• It is less expensive and widely spread geographically. 

• It is free from the bias of the interviewer because answers are in respondents' own words. 

• Respondents are given sufficient time to answer.

• Easily approachable to the respondents.

• Large samples may made use of and thus may be made more dependable and reliable.

Demerits of the Questionnaire Method:

• Low rate return to the scripts.

• It can only be used with educated people.

• Control over the questionnaire will be lost.

• There is possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies.

• This method is likely to be slower than other methods.

Essential Features of a Good Questionnaire: 

• It should comparatively short and simple.

• Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from easy to difficult questions. 

• Personal and intimate questions should be left at the end.

• Technical terms, vague expressions,capable of different interpretation should be avoided. 

• Questions may be in pattern of 'yes' or 'no', multiple choices or open ended. 

• Questions affecting the sentiments of others must be avoided. 

• Directions of answering should be given. 

• Finally the physical appearance of the questions should be good.

Experimental Method

In experimental method of studying behaviour is carried out in laboratories. Sometimes these experiments are contucted in fields, which are named as field experiments. The main objective of this method is to formulate a testable hypothesis in terms of observable events.

The four basic steps of the process are: 

1. Forming a Hypothesis
2. Designing a Study and Collecting Data
3. Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions
4. Sharing the Findings

In this method of experiments, there are two important concepts with which we deal. They are;

1. Variables
2. Controls

Variables:

It is an event or condition which can have different values. It is an event which can be measured and it varies quantitatively. 

Variables may be either;

  a) Independent

  b) Dependent

An independent variable is a condition set or selected by an experiment to see whether it will have an effect on behaviour. It might be a stimulus presented, a drug administration, a new method of training etc.

The dependent variable in an experiment might be the response of a person or animal to the stimulus. It is the behaviour of the person or animal after the administration of the drug, training method etc. It is called as a dependent variable, because their value depend upon the independent variable. 

Example: Enriching the environment of young children with books and toys will increase their scores on intelligence tests.  

Here, enriching the environment is the independent where as scores of intelligence tests are dependent. 

Controls:

The other important character of the experimental method is control. In an experiment, the factors other than the independent variable which might affect the dependent variable must be held constant or the result of the experiment will be unreliable. Scientists must be very careful to control their experiments adequately.

Advantages of Experimental Method:

• Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established.

• It allows for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable the experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected in order to observe its effect on some other variables. 

• Experiments can be replicated. We cannot generalise from the results of a single experiment. The more often an experiment is repeated, with the same results obtained, the more confident we can be that the theory being tested is valid. The experimental method consists of standardised procedures and measures which allow it to be easily repeated.

• It is also worth noting that an experiment yields quantitative data (numerical amounts of something) which can be analysed using inferential statistical tests. These tests permit statements to be made about how likely the results are to have occurred through chance.

Limitations of the Experimental Method:

• It cannot always be used, especially if it is dangerous to the subject.

• This method is restricted in its application.

• The conclusion derived from this method may not be applied in natural situation. 

• This method sometimes interferes with the very thing it is trying to measure.

Revealed Preference Theory

Both the Marshalian cardinal utility theory of demand and Hicks-Allen indifference curve analysis provide psychological explanation of consumer’s demand. They derive laws about the consumer’s demand from the consumers reaction psychologically to contain hypothetical changes in price and income but the revealed preference theory which has been put forward by Prof Samuelson seeks to explain consumers demand from his actual behavior in the market at various prices and income situation.

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Substitution, Income and Price Effect

The Substitution Effect 

The substitution effect takes place when the income of the consumer remains constant and the relative prices of the tow commodities changes. Suppose the price of one commodity rises and the other decreases now the consumer is neither better off nor worse off than before. However he will rearrange this purchase to compensate the loss. It means the consumer substitutes relatively cheaper goods for the relatively costlier ones.

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Consumer’s Equilibrium Through Indifference Curve

The consumer spends all his income to maximise his satisfaction it is called consumer equilibrium. It s not possible to know the consumer equilibrium by indifference curve only. For this we must know the income of the consumer and price of the goods. Therefore we should consider both indifference map and price line. If we incorporate the price line into indifference map we can get consumer equilibrium.

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Marginal Rate of Substitution

The concept is the basis of indifference curve and the modern theory of consumer demand. If the consumer exchanges additional unit of one commodity for another commodity it called marginal rate of substation (MRS). In this MRS the consumer reduces the consumption of one commodity and increase the consumption of another commodity if he wants to get same amount of satisfaction.

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Properties of Indifference Curve

1. IC slopes downwards from left to right:

The IC curve always slopes downwards from left to right, then only we can show the consumer is purchasing one commodity more and the other one less. In our ex the consumer purchases more apples and fewer oranges.

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Indifference Curve Analysis

The utility analysis lost its popularity because of its assumptions like utility can be measured, marginal utility of money remain constant. To replace these old concepts the modern economists have introduced an indifference curve analysis. This technique was originally developed by F.Y Edgeworth in 1881. Later picked up by Irving Fisher, who tried to give a concrete shape to it in 1892.It was further developed by Pereto. In 1931, I.R Hicks and Allen gave a scientific treatment to this new analysis, Indifference curve analysis is now being used in the analysis of many economic problems.

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Importance of the Concept of Consumer Surplus

The concept of consumer’s surplus does emphasize the amenities that we enjoy in a modern society. Much of the consumer’s surplus, we enjoy depends on our surroundings and the opportunities of consumption available to us, example, amenities of life in America as compared to Central Africa. It thus clarifies conjectural importance. The concept enables us to compare the advantages of environment and opportunities or conjectural benefits. The larger the consumer’s surplus, the better off is the people. The concept, thus, serves as an index of economic betterment.

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Assumptions and Criticisms of Consumer Surplus

Assumptions: 

This concept is based on the following assumptions. 

• Cardinal measurement of utility. 

• Constant marginal utility of money. 

• The commodity in question does not have substitutes. 

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Consumer Surplus

Dupuit originated the concept of consumer’s surplus. But, it was Marshall who popularized it by presenting it in a most refined way. Marshall viewed that when a consumer buys a commodity, his satisfaction derived from derived from it may be in excess of the dissatisfaction he has experienced in parting with money for paying its price. This excess of satisfaction is called” consumer’s surplus”.

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Limitations of the Law of Equi-Marginal Utility

The law has been subject to certain criticisms or limitations. They are as follows: 

• The law is based on unrealistic assumption, being, an extension of the law of diminishing marginal utility, it involves all the unrealistic assumptions and conditions such as homogeneity, continuity, constancy etc. 

• The proportionality rule presumes cardinal measurement of utility, but, it is not an unrealistic phenomenon. 

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Assumption and Importance of the Law of Equi-Marginal Utility

Assumption of the Law:

The law of equi-marginal utility is based on the following assumptions;

• The consumer is a rational economic man who seeks to maximize his total satisfaction.

• Utility is measurable in cardinal terms. 

• The consumer has a given scale of preference for the goods in consideration. He has perfect knowledge of utility derived. 

• Prices of goods are unchanged. 

• Income of the consumer is fixed. 

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Relationship between the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility and the Law of Equi-Marginal Utility

The law of equi-marginal utility is an extension of the law of diminishing marginal utility. It considers the satisfaction derived from the number of commodities at a time. the law of diminishing marginal utility is applicable only to a single commodity whereas the law of equi-marginal utility is applicable to several commodities at a time, therefore, it has greater practical value. 

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The Law of Equi-Marginal Utility

The law of equi-marginal utility is an extension of the law of diminishing marginal utility. This law is called the law of substitution or the law of maximum satisfaction. It is obvious that the law of diminishing marginal utility is applicable only to a single want with one commodity in use. But, in reality there may be a number of wants to be satisfied at a time, and, these various wants are to be satisfied with several goods. To analyse, such a situation, one has to extend the law of diminishing marginal utility and such an extended form is called the law of equi-marginal utility.

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